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  • How does the Lab Ultraviolet Light Test Chamber Reproduce Sun Exposure and Rain? How does the Lab Ultraviolet Light Test Chamber Reproduce Sun Exposure and Rain?
    Sep 10, 2025
    Lab Companion UV weathering test chamber is a professional device used to simulate and evaluate the resistance performance of materials under ultraviolet radiation and corresponding climatic conditions for testing outdoor products. Its core function lies in simulating the impact of ultraviolet rays on materials in the natural environment through artificially controlled ultraviolet irradiation, temperature and humidity changes, thereby conducting comprehensive and systematic tests on the durability, color stability and physical properties of materials. In recent years, with the development of technology and the continuous improvement of requirements for material performance, the application of UV weathering test chambers has become increasingly widespread, covering multiple fields such as plastics, coatings, and textiles. The Q8 system independently developed by Lab can simulate the damage caused by sunlight and rain, and complies with multiple international certification standards. It can be programmed to conduct continuous ultraviolet light and rain weather resistance tests 24 hours a day and 7 days a week. It only takes a few days or weeks to reproduce the damage that occurs outdoors in months or even years, including various phenomena such as color change and powdering. Meanwhile, the Q8/UV2/UV3 are equipped with a standard ultraviolet light detection system, which precisely controls the light intensity. Four sets of UV intensity sensors automatically adjust the energy of the lamp tubes based on the aging state to make compensation, significantly reducing the experimental time and ensuring the reproducibility of the system. To more realistically simulate the effects of rainwater scouring and cooling, the ultraviolet test chamber is also equipped with a spray system. The Q8/UV3 model is equipped with 12 sets of water spray devices to simulate mechanical corrosion caused by rainwater erosion. When the sample is heated to a high temperature by an ultraviolet lamp, it is sprayed with cold water to generate intense thermal contraction stress, simulating a sudden downpour in summer. The scouring effect of water flow can simulate the erosion of coatings, paints and other surfaces by rainwater, washing away the aged and decomposed substances on the surface and exposing new material layers to continue aging. A typical test loop is: Under the set irradiance and high temperature, 4 hours of ultraviolet light is used to simulate daytime sun exposure. With the lights off and high humidity maintained, 4 hours of condensation at night is simulated. During this process, short sprays can be inserted regularly to simulate rainfall. By intensifying and cycling these key environmental factors, the ultraviolet light test chamber can reproduce within days or weeks the aging damage that materials would take months or even years outdoors, thus being used for product quality control and durability assessment. However, this test is an accelerated experiment, and its results are correlated with those of real outdoor exposure, rather than being completely equivalent. Different materials and testing standards will select different types of lamp tubes, irradiance, temperatures, and cycle periods to obtain the most relevant prediction results.
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  • How to Choose the Appropriate Cooling Method for Test Chambers?
    Sep 09, 2025
    Air cooling and water cooling are two mainstream heat dissipation methods in refrigeration equipment. The most fundamental difference between them lies in the different media they use to discharge the heat generated by the system into the external environment: air cooling relies on air, while water cooling relies on water. This core difference has given rise to numerous distinctions among them in terms of installation, usage, cost and applicable scenarios.   1. Air-cooled system The working principle of an air-cooling system is to force air flow through a fan, blowing it over its core heat dissipation component - the finned condenser, thereby carrying away the heat in the condenser and dissipating it into the surrounding air. Its installation is very simple and flexible. The equipment can operate simply by connecting to the power supply and does not require additional supporting facilities, thus having the lowest requirements for site renovation. This cooling performance is significantly affected by the ambient temperature. In hot summers or high-temperature environments with poor ventilation, due to the reduced temperature difference between the air and the condenser, the heat dissipation efficiency will drop markedly, resulting in a decline in the equipment's cooling capacity and an increase in operational energy consumption. Moreover, it will be accompanied by considerable fan noise during operation. Its initial investment is usually low, and daily maintenance is relatively simple. The main task is to regularly clean the dust on the condenser fins to ensure smooth ventilation. The main operating cost is electricity consumption. Air-cooled systems are highly suitable for small and medium-sized equipment, areas with abundant electricity but scarce water resources or inconvenient water access, laboratories with controllable environmental temperatures, as well as projects with limited budgets or those that prefer a simple and quick installation process.   2. Water-cooled system The working principle of a water-cooling system is to use circulating water flowing through a dedicated water-cooled condenser to absorb and carry away the heat of the system. The heated water flow is usually transported to the outdoor cooling tower for cooling and then recycled again. Its installation is complex and requires a complete set of external water systems, including cooling towers, water pumps, water pipe networks and water treatment devices. This not only fixes the installation location of the equipment, but also places high demands on site planning and infrastructure. The heat dissipation performance of the system is very stable and is basically not affected by changes in the external environmental temperature. Meanwhile, the operating noise near the equipment body is relatively low. Its initial investment is high. Besides electricity consumption, there are also other costs such as continuous water resource consumption during daily operation. The maintenance work is also more professional and complex, and it is necessary to prevent scale formation, corrosion and microbial growth. Water-cooled systems are mainly suitable for large, high-power industrial-grade equipment, workshops with high ambient temperatures or poor ventilation conditions, as well as situations where extremely high temperature stability and refrigeration efficiency are required.   Choosing between air cooling and water cooling is not about judging their absolute superiority or inferiority, but about finding the solution that best suits one's specific conditions. Decisions should be based on the following considerations: Firstly, large high-power equipment usually prefers water cooling to achieve stable performance. At the same time, the geographical climate of the laboratory (whether it is hot), water supply conditions, installation space and ventilation conditions need to be evaluated. Secondly, if a relatively low initial investment is valued, air cooling is a suitable choice. If the focus is on long-term operational energy efficiency and stability, and one does not mind the relatively high initial construction cost, then water cooling has more advantages. Finally, it is necessary to consider whether one has the professional ability to conduct regular maintenance on complex water systems.
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  • Working Principle of Lab Companion Air-cooled Mechanical Compression Refrigeration Working Principle of Lab Companion Air-cooled Mechanical Compression Refrigeration
    Sep 06, 2025
    1.Compression The low-temperature and low-pressure gaseous refrigerant flows out of the evaporator and is sucked in by the compressor. The compressor does work on this part of the gas (consuming electrical energy) and compresses it violently. When the refrigerant turns into high-temperature and high-pressure superheated vapor, the temperature of the vapor is much higher than the ambient temperature, creating conditions for heat release to the outside. 2. Condensation The high-temperature and high-pressure refrigerant vapor enters the condenser (usually a finned tube heat exchanger composed of copper tubes and aluminum fins). The fan forces the ambient air to blow over the condenser fins. Subsequently, the refrigerant vapor releases heat to the flowing air in the condenser. Due to cooling, it gradually condenses from a gaseous state into a medium-temperature and high-pressure liquid. At this point, the heat is transferred from the refrigeration system to the outdoor environment. 3. Expansion The medium-temperature and high-pressure liquid refrigerant flows through a narrow channel through the throttling device, which serves to throttle and reduce pressure, similar to blocking the opening of a water pipe with a finger. When the pressure of the refrigerant drops suddenly, the temperature also drops sharply, turning into a low-temperature and low-pressure gas-liquid two-phase mixture (mist). 4. Evaporation The low-temperature and low-pressure gas-liquid mixture enters the evaporator, and another fan circulates the air inside the box through the cold evaporator fins. The refrigerant liquid absorbs the heat of the air flowing through the fins in the evaporator, rapidly evaporates and vaporizes, and reverts to a low-temperature and low-pressure gas. Due to the absorption of heat, the temperature of the air flowing through the evaporator drops significantly, thereby achieving the cooling of the test chamber.   Subsequently, this low-temperature and low-pressure gas is drawn into the compressor again, initiating the next cycle. In this way, the cycle repeats itself without end. The refrigeration system continuously "moves" the heat inside the box to the outside and dissipates the heat into the atmosphere through the fan.
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  • High-temperature Oven Maintenance Guide High-temperature Oven Maintenance Guide
    Sep 05, 2025
    1. Daily Maintenance First, clean the interior of the box to remove any residual contaminants from the test (such as dust and sample debris) to prevent them from corroding the inner liner or contaminating subsequent test samples. After the box has completely cooled down, wipe the inner liner, shelves and inner walls with a dry soft cloth. Second, clean the exterior of the box to prevent dust from blocking the ventilation openings and affecting heat dissipation. Especially around the ventilation openings, make sure there is no dust accumulation. Thirdly, check whether the sealing strip of the box door is flat, free of cracks and deformation. Aging or damage to the sealing strip can lead to heat leakage and a decrease in temperature uniformity. Fourth, empty the chamber: Emptying the chamber after use can prevent irrelevant items from being stored in the box for a long time, which may cause contamination or accidents.   2.Regular Maintenance Please be sure to cut off the power supply before cleaning the heating element! Wait for the equipment to cool down completely. Open the rear cover plate and gently remove the dust on the surface of the electric heating tube and the air duct with a vacuum cleaner or a soft brush. Check and clean the fan/impeller. Dust accumulation on the fan can cause dynamic balance imbalance, seriously affecting the uniformity of temperature. Therefore, after the power is cut off, it is necessary to check whether there is any abnormal noise from the fan motor bearings and use a vacuum cleaner to clean the accumulated dust on the fan blades.  Electrical components shall be inspected by professional equipment administrators for any loose, charred or rusted marks on the power lines, circuit breakers, contactors and other terminal blocks. Tighten the loose terminals and replace the damaged parts to ensure the safety and reliability of the electrical connection. The accuracy of the temperature sensor can directly determine the success or failure of the test. It is recommended that every six months or once a year, a standard thermometer that has undergone metrological calibration be used to conduct multi-point comparison calibration of the working temperature range of the equipment. If deviations are detected, parameter corrections or sensor replacements should be made in the control system. Clean the humidity system. If your device has a humidity function, you also need to clean the humidification water pan regularly, replace the wet cloth to prevent the growth of scale and algae, and use deionized water or purified water to reduce scale.   3. Long-term Maintenance after discontinuation First, thoroughly clean the inside and outside of the box, and then completely cover the equipment with a dust cover. Secondly, it is recommended to power on and run the equipment for half an hour to one hour without load once a month. This can remove the moisture inside the box, keep the electrical components active, prevent them from being damaged by moisture, and lubricate the mechanical parts. Finally, during non-power-on periods, it is recommended to completely cut off the main power supply to ensure safety and save standby power consumption.   Please always keep in mind that safety comes first in the above operations. By implementing a systematic maintenance plan, you can extend the service life of the high-temperature oven, ensure the accuracy and repeatability of the test data, and reduce the frequency of equipment failures and maintenance costs.
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  • Lab Companion Vacuum Oven Working Principle Lab Companion Vacuum Oven Working Principle
    Sep 02, 2025
    Lab Companion vacuum oven is a precision device that dries materials under low-pressure conditions. Its working principle is based on a core scientific principle: in a vacuum state, the boiling point of a liquid will significantly decrease. Its working process can be divided into three key links:   1. Vacuum creation: By continuously extracting air from the oven chamber through a vacuum pump set, the internal environment is reduced to a level far below atmospheric pressure (typically up to 10Pa or even higher vacuum degrees). This move achieves two purposes: First, it greatly reduces the oxygen content in the cavity, preventing the material from oxidizing during the heating process; The second is to create conditions for the core physical process: low-temperature boiling. 2. Heating provides energy: At the same time as the vacuum environment is established, the heating system (usually using electric heating wires or heating plates) starts to work, providing thermal energy for the materials inside the chamber. Due to the extremely low internal pressure, the boiling points of the moisture or other solvents contained in the material drop sharply. For instance, at a vacuum degree of -0.085MPa, the boiling point of water can be reduced to approximately 45℃. This means that the material does not need to be heated to the conventional 100℃, and the internal moisture can vaporize rapidly at a lower temperature. 3. Steam removal: The water vapor or other solvent vapors produced by vaporization will be released from the surface and interior of the material. Due to the pressure difference within the cavity, these vapors will rapidly diffuse and be continuously drawn away by the vacuum pump, then discharged into the external environment. This process is ongoing continuously, ensuring the maintenance of a dry environment and preventing steam from re-condensing within the cavity, thereby driving the drying reaction to proceed continuously and efficiently towards dehydration.   The "low-temperature and high-efficiency drying" feature of vacuum ovens makes them widely used in the fields of pharmaceuticals, chemicals, electronics, food, and materials science, especially suitable for processing precious, sensitive or difficult-to-dry materials by conventional methods.
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  • Application of high and low temperature test chambers in the research of new Energy materials Application of high and low temperature test chambers in the research of new Energy materials
    Aug 30, 2025
    1. Lithium-ion batteries: High and low temperature tests run through all R&D stages of lithium-ion batteries, from materials, cells to modules. 2. Material level: Evaluate the basic physical and chemical properties of basic materials such as positive and negative electrode materials, electrolytes, and separators at different temperatures. For instance, testing the lithium plating risk of anode materials at low temperatures, or examining the thermal shrinkage rate (MSDS) of separators at high temperatures. 3. Cell level: Simulate the cold winter in the frigid zone (such as -40℃ to -20℃), test the low-temperature start-up, discharge capacity and rate performance of the battery, and provide data support for improving low-temperature performance. Cyclic charge and discharge tests are conducted at high temperatures (such as 45℃ and 60℃) to accelerate aging and predict the long-term service life and capacity retention rate of the battery. 4. Fuel cells: Proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFC) have extremely strict requirements for the management of water and heat. Cold start capability is a key technical bottleneck for the commercialization of fuel cells. The test chamber simulates an environment below freezing point (such as -30℃) to test whether the system can be successfully started after freezing and to study the mechanical damage of ice crystals to the catalytic layer and proton exchange membrane. 5. Photovoltaic materials: Solar panels need to serve outdoors for more than 25 years, enduring the harsh tests of day and night as well as the four seasons. By simulating the temperature difference between day and night (such as 200 cycles from -40℃ to 85℃), the thermal fatigue of the interconnect solder tape of the battery cells, the aging and yellowing of the encapsulation materials (EVA/POE), and the bonding reliability between different laminated materials can be tested to prevent delamination and failure.   Modern high and low temperature test chambers are no longer simple temperature change chambers, but intelligent testing platforms integrating multiple functions. The advanced test chamber is equipped with observation Windows and test holes, allowing researchers to monitor the samples in real time during temperature changes.
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  • OVEN-256-10W Water-Cooled High and Low Temperature Aging and Functional Test System
    Aug 20, 2025
    OVEN-256-10W is a high-density test system designed to meet the rigorous performance testing requirements of NVMe SSDs, capable of simultaneously testing up to 256 drives. It operates within a temperature range of -10°C to 85°C and supports the latest PCIe Gen5 x4 interface alongside the NVMe Ver2.0 protocol specification. Each test slot features independent control over SSD power supply voltage, including voltage margining from 0V to 14.5V. Building on a mature framework for SSD production testing, the system offers comprehensive support for R&D pilot testing—including EVT, DVT, and PVT—as well as mass production quality and reliability tests such as MP, ORT, and ODT. Its user-friendly operation and highly flexible configuration significantly enhance both production efficiency and end-product quality in SSD manufacturing.                                                           Product Features Temperature control range: -10°C to 85°C; Temperature change rate: 1°C per minute; Supports PCIe Gen5 x4; Each test port’s power supply voltage can be controlled via script programming, with an adjustable range of 0.6V – 14.5V and a control accuracy of 1mV; Compatible with the latest NVMe Ver2.0 protocol and supports user-defined NVMe commands; Extensive script library and a powerful database analysis system; LTWolf software supports additional custom features based on client requirements; Seamless integration with customer MES systems, with optional customization for production data management systems; Firewall protection design ensures complete isolation between testing circuits and devices under test (DUT); Comprehensive and proven testing algorithms, including EVT, DVT, RDT, TVM, and more.
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  • Delivery Standards for Lab Companion Products
    Aug 07, 2025
    Key Considerations for Equipment Handover to Ensure Proper On-Site Operation: 1. Equipment Installation and Commissioning Our company oversees the transportation and electrical connection of the equipment, ensuring proper operation at the customer's site. All installations strictly comply with the standard acceptance criteria for environmental test chambers. We conduct regular third-party inspections to guarantee continuous adherence to industry standards. Should the customer require an inspection report upon acceptance, we can arrange for an accredited third-party agency to perform on-site testing.   2. Customer Technical Training System 2.1 Basic Operation Training The training covers equipment startup/shutdown procedures, test program configuration, and routine maintenance protocols. Depending on the user's industry (e.g., third-party testing institutions, automotive manufacturers), the training program is customized to align with specific operational scenarios.   2.2 Advanced Maintenance Training This program focuses on developing users' troubleshooting and repair capabilities, including humidity system failure diagnosis in temperature-humidity test chambers. Training includes key component replacement procedures and precautions to establish an independent maintenance competency system.                                                                         3. Technical Support Service Protocol 3.1 Emergency Response Mechanism A standardized fault response process ensures technical support is initiated within 2 hours of receiving a service request. Common faults are resolved within 48 hours (with alternative solutions negotiated for remote regions).   3.2 Remote Technical Support Equipped with a professional remote diagnostic system, real-time video communication or dedicated software access enables rapid fault identification.   4. Spare Parts Supply and Maintenance Assurance 4.1 Spare Parts Management Plan To enhance after-sales support, we establish dedicated spare parts warehouses for high-volume buyers and repeat clients, enabling rapid response to service needs. Each customer is assigned a dedicated profile to optimize resource allocation. Priority supply channels are reserved for key partners (e.g., CRCC, CETC), ensuring expedited spare parts delivery to minimize equipment downtime.   4.2 Maintenance Service Policy Free repairs are provided for non-human-induced failures during the warranty period. Post-warranty maintenance services follow a transparent pricing system, with detailed repair plans and cost estimates provided in advance. Our company maintains a professional after-sales maintenance team and is committed to continuously improving the technical expertise of our service personnel. We anticipate being able to provide on-site support for international customers in the near future.
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  • Application of Temperature Flow Meters Application of Temperature Flow Meters
    Jul 09, 2025
     A temperature flow meter is a precision instrument used to measure gas flow and temperature, widely applied in environmental monitoring, air conditioning systems, industrial manufacturing, and related fields. Its fundamental principle involves detecting temperature variations caused by gas flow to accurately calculate airflow velocity and volume, thereby providing users with precise data support. The instrument's key features lie in high precision and rapid response. Typically equipped with advanced sensors, it can swiftly capture minute changes in flow rate and provide real-time feedback. Its measurement accuracy remains exceptional even under complex environmental conditions, which is particularly crucial for industrial applications requiring strict control of airflow and temperature. Additionally, the operation of temperature flow meters is relatively simple—users only need basic configuration to obtain required data. This user-friendly design makes it easy for both professionals and general users to operate. Many modern models also feature digital displays with intuitive interfaces, allowing users to quickly understand current status and enhance usability. The instrument demonstrates excellent stability, maintaining consistent measurements over extended periods without significant drift, ensuring data reliability. With continuous technological advancements, many devices now integrate data storage and transmission functions, enabling users to review and analyze historical data post-test for informed decision-making. In conclusion, the thermal anemometer has become an indispensable tool in various industries due to its high precision, rapid response, user-friendly operation, and excellent stability. In daily life and professional settings, mastering this instrument not only enhances work efficiency but also provides crucial support for scientific research and engineering applications. As a vital measurement technology in modern science, it plays a pivotal role in technological advancement.
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  • Selection of the installation site of the rapid temperature change test chambe Selection of the installation site of the rapid temperature change test chambe
    Jun 27, 2025
    Selection of the installation site of the rapid temperature change test chamber: The distance from the adjacent wall can smoothly give full play to the role and characteristics of the environmental test chamber. The long-term temperature of 15 ~ 45 °C and the relative environmental humidity exceeding 86% should be selected. site. The working temperature of the installation site must not change significantly.  It should be installed on a leveling surface (use a level to determine the level on the road during installation). It should be installed in a site without sun exposure.  It should be installed in a site with excellent natural ventilation. It should be installed in areas where flammable materials, explosive products and high-temperature heat sources are eliminated. It should be installed in a site with less dust. Install it as close as possible to the switching power supply of the power supply system.
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  • What should I do if the high and low temperature test chamber has problems? What should I do if the high and low temperature test chamber has problems?
    Jun 23, 2025
    High and low temperature test chamber may encounter a variety of problems in the process of use, the following is a summary of potential faults and their causes from different perspectives: 1. Core system failure Temperature out of control Reason: PID control parameters are out of balance, ambient temperature exceeds the design range of the equipment, multi-zone temperature interference. Case: In a special environment workshop, the external high temperature causes the refrigeration system to overload, resulting in temperature drift. Humidity is abnormal Reason: poor water quality of humidification leads to scaling and nozzle blockage, failure of ultrasonic humidifier piezoelectric sheet, and incomplete regeneration of dehumidification desiccant. Special phenomenon: reverse condensation occurs during high humidity test, resulting in the actual humidity in the box being lower than the set value. 2. Mechanical and structural problems Air flow is disorganized Performance: There is a temperature gradient of more than 3℃ in the sample area. Root cause: the customized sample rack changed the original design air duct and the accumulation of dirt on the centrifugal fan blade led to the destruction of dynamic balance.  sealing failure New failure: the magnetic force of electromagnetic sealing door decreases at low temperature, and the silicone sealing strip becomes brittle and cracks after-70℃. 3. Electrical and control system Intelligent control failure Software level: After firmware upgrade, the temperature dead zone setting error occurs and the historical data overflow causes the program to crash. Hardware level: SSR solid state relay breakdown causes continuous heating and bus communication is subjected to inverter electromagnetic interference. Security protection vulnerabilities Hidden dangers: the synchronous failure of the triple temperature protection relay and the false alarm caused by the expiration of the refrigerant detector calibration. 4. Challenges of special working conditions Specific temperature shock Problem: -40℃ to +150℃ rapid conversion of the evaporator weld stress cracking, thermal expansion coefficient difference resulting in the failure of the observation window seal. Long-term operation attenuation Performance degradation: after 2000 hours of continuous operation, the compressor valve plate wear leads to a decrease of 15% in refrigeration capacity and drift of ceramic heating tube resistance value. 5. Environmental and maintenance impact Infrastructure adaptation Case: The power oscillation of PTC heater caused by the fluctuation of power supply voltage and the water hammer effect of cooling water system damaged the plate heat exchanger. Preventive maintenance blind spots Lesson: Ignoring the positive pressure of the box leads to water entering the bearing chamber and biofilm growth and blockage in the condensate discharge pipe. 6. Pain points of emerging technologies New refrigerant application Challenges: system oil compatibility problems after R448A replaces R404A, and high pressure sealing problems of subcritical CO₂ refrigeration systems. IoT integration risks Fault: The remote control protocol is maliciously attacked, resulting in program tampering and cloud storage failure, resulting in the loss of test evidence chain. Strategy recommendations Intelligent diagnosis: configure vibration analyzer to predict the failure of compressor bearing, and use infrared thermal imager to scan the electrical connection points regularly. Reliability design: key components such as evaporator are made of SUS316L stainless steel to improve corrosion resistance, and redundant temperature control modules are added to the control system. Maintenance innovation: implement a dynamic maintenance plan based on operating hours, and establish an annual refrigerant purity testing system。 The solutions to these problems need to be analyzed in combination with the specific model of the equipment, the use environment and the maintenance history. It is recommended to establish a collaborative maintenance mechanism including the OEM of the equipment, third-party testing institutions and user technical teams. For key test items, it is recommended to configure a dual-machine hot standby system to ensure the continuity of testing.  
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  • What are the delivery standards of Lab Companion? What are the delivery standards of Lab Companion?
    Jun 23, 2025
    (1) Equipment installation and commissioning On-site service: technical personnel will deliver the goods free of charge and complete the mechanical assembly, electrical wiring and debugging. The debugging parameters shall meet the temperature and humidity, salt spray deposition amount and other indicators in the customer's technical agreement. Acceptance criteria: provide a third-party measurement report, and unqualified equipment shall be returned or replaced directly. For example, the rain test box shall pass 100% acceptance. (2) Customer training system Operation training: covers equipment start and stop, program setting and daily maintenance, customized for different user scenarios such as quality inspection institutions and automobile enterprises. Deep maintenance training: including fault diagnosis (such as troubleshooting of humidity system in high and low temperature and humidity test chamber) and spare parts replacement to improve customers' independent maintenance ability. (3) Technical support and response Instant response: respond to repair demand within 15 minutes, and solve routine faults within 48 hours (negotiate with remote areas). Remote diagnosis: through video guidance or remote access software, quickly locate the problem (such as abnormal dust concentration in the sand test chamber). (4) Spare parts supply and maintenance Make spare parts plan, give priority to the supply of wear and tear parts from cooperative units (such as China Railway Inspection and Certification Center, China Electronics Technology Group), and reduce downtime. Non-manual damage is free of charge during the warranty period, and paid services are provided after the warranty period with transparent charges.
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